(WP 2005-05) Assessing the Determinants of Willingness to Pay for Urban Flood Control: The Role of Locational, Demographic and Attitudinal Factors

The urbanization of urban watersheds can influence flooding risks. Traditional Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) flood risk maps identify 100 year floodplains. These maps are updated infrequently. However, as a community urbanizes, flood risks can change, especially for downstream residents. Thus, one would expect that the willingness to pay (WTP) to prevent the worsening of flooding risk would depend in part on the location of the household in the community and their associated flooding risk. Economists and regional scientists have evaluated the role played by traditional demographic factors. However, attitudinal factors measuring community norms, political philosophy, and other psychological factors that may be unique to the individual have not received the same level of scrutiny. Milwaukee, WI has experienced major flooding events, classified as floods with an expected frequency of once every 100 years or less, in 1986 and most recently in 1997 and 1998. In this study, 1000 residents of the Menomonee watershed in Milwaukee were interviewed in a two-wave panel survey (i.e., telephone interviews took place in 2000 and 2001) to determine their willingness to pay for a referendum which would prevent flood risks from worsening. The interviews queried respondents about their attitudes concerning flooding and ecological risks, political beliefs, information seeking behavior, and other psychological factors unique to the respondent. Information was also gathered on demographic characteristics of the respondent, and also that individuals address. The address was geocoded and hydrologic modeling was used to determine the unique flood risk associated with the residence. A willingness to pay function was estimated using Tobit analysis. Preliminary findings indicated that all three categories of factors influence willingness to pay, with psychological factors and flood risk factors having a relatively strong impact on willingness to pay

Urban Watershed/Water Body Restoration - The Driving Forces

Urban streams are used for several purposes. Some uses are conflicting and some are complementary. The use of urban water bodies and the resolution of conflicts is driven by anthropogenic and biocentric/ecocentric interests that must be optimized and the conflicts resolved. This article examines and analyzes land ethics (biocentric) and socio-economic (anthropocentric) drives for stream restoration of urban watersheds located in the Milwaukee (WI) metropolitan area. The basins experienced increased flooding, significant degradation of sediment and water quality, and loss of aquatic species, all due to urbanization. It was found that the primary drivers for restoration of urban streams are the ethical attitudes of population towards the ecocentric benefits of restoration in combination with a desire for flood control. A Contingent Valuation Survey of citizens residing in two Milwaukee watersheds revealed that those who see the watershed in ecocentric terms appear to have a greater Willingness to Pay for watershed/water body improvements than those who see the benefits solely in anthropogenic terms of reduction of flood damages

Risk Based Urban Watershed Management Under Conflicting Objectives

Ecological impairment and flooding caused by urbanization can be expressed numerically by calculating the risks throughout the watershed (floodplain) and along the main stems of the streams. The risks can be evaluated in terms of the present and/or future. This article describes the methodologies for ascertaining the risks in the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) environment. The objectives of urban flood controls and ecological preservation/restoration of urban waters are often conflicting and, in the past, the sole emphasis on flood control led to destruction of habitat and deterioration of water quality. An optimal solution to these two problems may be achieved by linking the risks to the concepts of risk communication, risk perception, and public willingness to pay for projects leading to ecological restoration and ecologically sustainable flood control. This method is appropriate because, in each case, public funds are used and the projects require approval and backing of policy makers and stakeholders. This article briefly describes a research project that attempts to resolve the conflict between the flood protection and stream ecological preservation and restoration and suggests alternative ways of expressing benefits of urban stream flood control and restoration projects

Using GIS to Evaluate the Effects of Flood Risk on Residential Property Values

Annually, flooding causes more property damage in the United States than any other type of natural disaster. One of the consequences of continued urbanization is the tendency for floodplains to expand, increasing flood risks in the areas around urban streams and rivers. Hedonic modeling techniques can be used to estimate the relationship between residential housing prices and flood risks. One weakness of hedonic modeling has been incomplete controls for locational characteristics influencing a given property. In addition, relatively primitive assumptions have been employed in modeling flood risk exposures. We use GIS tools to provide more accurate measures of flood risks, and a more thorough accounting of the locational features in the neighborhood. This has important policy implications. Once a complete hedonic model is developed, the reduction in property value attributed to an increase in flood risks can, under certain circumstances, be interpreted as the household’s willingness to pay for the reduction of flood risk. Willingness to pay estimates can in turn be used to guide policymakers as they assess community-wide benefits from flood control projects

Circular Sample Plot Size Impact on Structure Elements Estimation in Selected Pedunculate Oak Stands

Uređajna izmjera šuma u Hrvatskoj najčešće se vrši na privremenim jedinicama uzorka, kao što su primjerni krugovi ili primjerne pruge. U sastojinama koje se u prvom polurazdoblju propisuju za sječu glavnog prihoda, prema Pravilniku o uređivanju šuma (Narodne novine 141/08) mjere se sva stabla, osim u panjačama. U radu se na uzorku od 86 primjernih ploha kružnog oblika, postavljenih na području g.j. Repaš-Gabajeva Greda, šumarije Repaš, UŠP Koprivnica, promatra promjena osnovnih taksacijskih elemenata (broj stabala – N, temeljnica–G, volumen–V) smanjenjem polumjera kruga. Plohe su postavljene u sastojinama od III. do VII. dobnog razreda. Svakom je stablu određen položaj u prostoru, pa se smanjivanje polumjera kružne plohe vršilo simulacijom iz baze podataka. Za procijenjene strukturne elemente izračunate su osnovne statističke veličine, koeficijent varijacije (CV) i preciznost procjene (SP). Rezultati su pokazali kako se kreću vrijednosti procjene strukturnih elemenata i statističkih veličina uz smanjenje polumjera kruga. Za III., IV. i VII. dobni razred, zbog malog broja izmjerenih ploha nije bilo moguće donijeti čvrste zaključke. U V. i VI. dobnom razredu rezultati su pokazali da se smanjenjem polumjera kružne plohe za 10 m vrijednosti procjene strukturnih elemenata ne mijenjaju značajno. Stoga u V. dobnom razredu kod danih sastojinskih uvjeta nije potrebno niti opravdano vršiti izmjeru na kružnim plohama polumjera većeg od 15 m, a u VI. dobnom razredu 20 m. Povećanjem broja ploha u III., IV. i V. dobnom razredu te ispitivanjem kretanja procjene strukturnih elemenata uz manje polumjere kružne plohe od onih ispitanih u ovom radu, moglo bi se doći do najmanjeg polumjera kružne plohe koji osigurava pouzdanu i preciznu procjenu sastojinskih elemenata.Data collecting in forest inventory in Croatia are carried out on a temporary sample plots (circles or strips). In this article, sample of 86 circular plots established in Repaš-Gabajeva Greda management unit (Fig. 1), Repaš forest office, Koprivnica regional forest office, is used to see how the basic structural elements (stem number – N, basal area – G and stand volume –V) are changing when the sample plot radius is decreasing. Research area is typical lowland pedunculate oak and hornbeam stand (Carpino betuli-Quercetum roboris (Anić 1959) Rauš 1969. Sample plots covered the whole management unit area and stands older than 40 years, from 3rd to 7th age class. Sample units were circular, with radius 15 to 30 m, bigger than in regular forest inventory (Table 1) which are usually 12,62 m and 18 m in radius. All trees above 10 cm in dbh within circular plot were measured. Plot center was marked with iron bolt below ground level. Position of each tree is determined with distance and angle from plot center. Haglof caliper was used to measure two dbh of each tree. Total tree height was taken with Suunto hypsometer. Data collected in a field, were entered to database created in Microsoft Access. For each plot, number of trees per hectare, basal area per hectare, and volume per hectare, were calculated, separately for tree species and total. These basic structure elements were calculated for different plot sizes, lower than taken in field. It has been done using database queries, thanks to recorded position of each tree. For a particular criteria (distance from plot center), only trees that are within required radius were selected. In 3rd and 4thage class, plot radius from 5 to 15 m, with 1 m step, is used to calculate structure elements (Table 2). In 5thage class, examined plot radius range was 15–25 m, and in 6thand 7thage class 20–30 m (Table 3). Calculated elements were examined with simple statistical analyses in order to get variation coefficient (CV), and precision (SP). The results showed that in 3rd, 4thand 7thage class there is not enough sample plots to bring conclusions because variation coefficient values are high and precision is at poor level. (Fig. 3–8). In 5th and 6th age class for all examined plot radii, estimated precision of basal area and stand volume is better than 5 % (Fig.7, Fig.8), and variation coefficient is in range of 15,3–26,4 % (Fig. 4, Fig. 5). Stem number estimation shows precision of 5,3–6,0 % (Fig. 6). In given research area and stand conditions, conclusions are: – in 3rd, 4thand 7thage class variability in small amount of sample plots is too high to bring resolute conclusion – regarding to variation coefficient and estimation precision values, there is no need to use sample plot radius greater than 15 m in 5thage class, and 20 m in 6thage class - with more sample plots in 3rd, 4thand 7thage class, and use of lower sample plot sizes in 5thand 6thage class, optimal plot radius that gives reliable and precise stand structure elements estimation could be reached

Circular Sample Plot Size Impact on Structure Elements Estimation in Selected Pedunculate Oak Stands

Uređajna izmjera šuma u Hrvatskoj najčešće se vrši na privremenim jedinicama uzorka, kao što su primjerni krugovi ili primjerne pruge. U sastojinama koje se u prvom polurazdoblju propisuju za sječu glavnog prihoda, prema Pravilniku o uređivanju šuma (Narodne novine 141/08) mjere se sva stabla, osim u panjačama. U radu se na uzorku od 86 primjernih ploha kružnog oblika, postavljenih na području g.j. Repaš-Gabajeva Greda, šumarije Repaš, UŠP Koprivnica, promatra promjena osnovnih taksacijskih elemenata (broj stabala – N, temeljnica–G, volumen–V) smanjenjem polumjera kruga. Plohe su postavljene u sastojinama od III. do VII. dobnog razreda. Svakom je stablu određen položaj u prostoru, pa se smanjivanje polumjera kružne plohe vršilo simulacijom iz baze podataka. Za procijenjene strukturne elemente izračunate su osnovne statističke veličine, koeficijent varijacije (CV) i preciznost procjene (SP). Rezultati su pokazali kako se kreću vrijednosti procjene strukturnih elemenata i statističkih veličina uz smanjenje polumjera kruga. Za III., IV. i VII. dobni razred, zbog malog broja izmjerenih ploha nije bilo moguće donijeti čvrste zaključke. U V. i VI. dobnom razredu rezultati su pokazali da se smanjenjem polumjera kružne plohe za 10 m vrijednosti procjene strukturnih elemenata ne mijenjaju značajno. Stoga u V. dobnom razredu kod danih sastojinskih uvjeta nije potrebno niti opravdano vršiti izmjeru na kružnim plohama polumjera većeg od 15 m, a u VI. dobnom razredu 20 m. Povećanjem broja ploha u III., IV. i V. dobnom razredu te ispitivanjem kretanja procjene strukturnih elemenata uz manje polumjere kružne plohe od onih ispitanih u ovom radu, moglo bi se doći do najmanjeg polumjera kružne plohe koji osigurava pouzdanu i preciznu procjenu sastojinskih elemenata.Data collecting in forest inventory in Croatia are carried out on a temporary sample plots (circles or strips). In this article, sample of 86 circular plots established in Repaš-Gabajeva Greda management unit (Fig. 1), Repaš forest office, Koprivnica regional forest office, is used to see how the basic structural elements (stem number – N, basal area – G and stand volume –V) are changing when the sample plot radius is decreasing. Research area is typical lowland pedunculate oak and hornbeam stand (Carpino betuli-Quercetum roboris (Anić 1959) Rauš 1969. Sample plots covered the whole management unit area and stands older than 40 years, from 3rd to 7th age class. Sample units were circular, with radius 15 to 30 m, bigger than in regular forest inventory (Table 1) which are usually 12,62 m and 18 m in radius. All trees above 10 cm in dbh within circular plot were measured. Plot center was marked with iron bolt below ground level. Position of each tree is determined with distance and angle from plot center. Haglof caliper was used to measure two dbh of each tree. Total tree height was taken with Suunto hypsometer. Data collected in a field, were entered to database created in Microsoft Access. For each plot, number of trees per hectare, basal area per hectare, and volume per hectare, were calculated, separately for tree species and total. These basic structure elements were calculated for different plot sizes, lower than taken in field. It has been done using database queries, thanks to recorded position of each tree. For a particular criteria (distance from plot center), only trees that are within required radius were selected. In 3rd and 4thage class, plot radius from 5 to 15 m, with 1 m step, is used to calculate structure elements (Table 2). In 5thage class, examined plot radius range was 15–25 m, and in 6thand 7thage class 20–30 m (Table 3). Calculated elements were examined with simple statistical analyses in order to get variation coefficient (CV), and precision (SP). The results showed that in 3rd, 4thand 7thage class there is not enough sample plots to bring conclusions because variation coefficient values are high and precision is at poor level. (Fig. 3–8). In 5th and 6th age class for all examined plot radii, estimated precision of basal area and stand volume is better than 5 % (Fig.7, Fig.8), and variation coefficient is in range of 15,3–26,4 % (Fig. 4, Fig. 5). Stem number estimation shows precision of 5,3–6,0 % (Fig. 6). In given research area and stand conditions, conclusions are: – in 3rd, 4thand 7thage class variability in small amount of sample plots is too high to bring resolute conclusion – regarding to variation coefficient and estimation precision values, there is no need to use sample plot radius greater than 15 m in 5thage class, and 20 m in 6thage class - with more sample plots in 3rd, 4thand 7thage class, and use of lower sample plot sizes in 5thand 6thage class, optimal plot radius that gives reliable and precise stand structure elements estimation could be reached

Growth dynamics of crown shapes in stands of pedunculate oak and common hornbeam

Background and Purpose: Structure of crowns in forest stands is one of the main factors which determines growth and development of trees. Dynamic change occurs with the age of the stand due to silvicultural interventions or natural disturbances duringwhich trees are removed fromthe stand. The aim of this article is to analyse the structure of the crown shape of pedunculate oak and common hornbean trees with regard to diameter at breast height (DBH) and the age of the stand in one of the most important forest community in Croatia. Materials andMethods: The investigation is based on data collected on 47 permanent experimental plotswhichwere established as a chronosequence in a natural range of forests of pedunculate oak and common hornbeam in Croatia. The total surface of all plots amounts to 33.45 ha. Breast height diameter, tree height and stem height were measured on the trees in the experimental plots, and a detailed ground plan was made of horizontal crown projections, from which the crown diameters were calculated. In total 1505 pedunculate oak trees and 2026 common hornbeam trees were measured. For each tree the crown shape was calculated and trees were then grouped in age classes of 20 years, and the shape of the crown analysed according to species and age classes. Correlation between crown shapes and diameter at breast height was investigated for stands of the sixth age class (101 – 120 years) for each species by means of linear regression. Results and Discussion: The shape of the crown of pedunculate oak, although it shows a trend toward growth in relation to diameter at breast height, the regularity pattern of the shape indicates weak character (r=0.441), i.e. variability is explained with only 19%. Crown shapes of common hornbeam are almost constant in relation to diameter at breast height (r=114), and correlation between the examined values cannot be equated by any rational analytical term. Investigation of growth dynamics of crown shape structure was carried out according to the species of trees and age classes, and the interval inwhich 68%(x ± 1.0 s) and 95%of data (x ± 1.96 s)were included. Conclusions: The results of the investigation indicate that dependence on crown shape and diameter at breast height of pendunculate oak and common hornbeam cannot be described by any rational analytical term. Average values of the crown shapes according to age classes can be used as form factors for calculation of crown volume.Data are applicable in various applications, such as for example their integration in a simulator of growth and development of forest stands and examination of the effect of different silvicultural scenario

Growth dynamics of crown shapes in stands of pedunculate oak and common hornbeam

Background and Purpose: Structure of crowns in forest stands is one of the main factors which determines growth and development of trees. Dynamic change occurs with the age of the stand due to silvicultural interventions or natural disturbances duringwhich trees are removed fromthe stand. The aim of this article is to analyse the structure of the crown shape of pedunculate oak and common hornbean trees with regard to diameter at breast height (DBH) and the age of the stand in one of the most important forest community in Croatia. Materials andMethods: The investigation is based on data collected on 47 permanent experimental plotswhichwere established as a chronosequence in a natural range of forests of pedunculate oak and common hornbeam in Croatia. The total surface of all plots amounts to 33.45 ha. Breast height diameter, tree height and stem height were measured on the trees in the experimental plots, and a detailed ground plan was made of horizontal crown projections, from which the crown diameters were calculated. In total 1505 pedunculate oak trees and 2026 common hornbeam trees were measured. For each tree the crown shape was calculated and trees were then grouped in age classes of 20 years, and the shape of the crown analysed according to species and age classes. Correlation between crown shapes and diameter at breast height was investigated for stands of the sixth age class (101 – 120 years) for each species by means of linear regression. Results and Discussion: The shape of the crown of pedunculate oak, although it shows a trend toward growth in relation to diameter at breast height, the regularity pattern of the shape indicates weak character (r=0.441), i.e. variability is explained with only 19%. Crown shapes of common hornbeam are almost constant in relation to diameter at breast height (r=114), and correlation between the examined values cannot be equated by any rational analytical term. Investigation of growth dynamics of crown shape structure was carried out according to the species of trees and age classes, and the interval inwhich 68%(x ± 1.0 s) and 95%of data (x ± 1.96 s)were included. Conclusions: The results of the investigation indicate that dependence on crown shape and diameter at breast height of pendunculate oak and common hornbeam cannot be described by any rational analytical term. Average values of the crown shapes according to age classes can be used as form factors for calculation of crown volume.Data are applicable in various applications, such as for example their integration in a simulator of growth and development of forest stands and examination of the effect of different silvicultural scenario